Tupac Amaru II: The Last Stand of Incan Resistance against Spanish Rule

Túpac Amaru II, whose birth name was José Gabriel Condorcanqui, is best known for leading a large indigenous rebellion against Spanish authority. However, before Túpac Amaru became known for rebellion, there was more to know about his backstory.

Tupac Amaru’s Early Life & Lineage

José Gabriel Condorcanqui was born in 1738 to a family living in Surimana in highland Peru. The Condorcanquis were “kurakas” of Surimana. Kurakas were upper-tier indigenous leaders, essentially local chieftains or “mayors” who negotiated with Spanish leaders on behalf of local indigenous peoples. They played an important role in allowing Spain to control their colony because they were responsible for ensuring that tribute was paid by the indigenous peoples of the area, as well as managing the forced labor system known as the ‘mita.’

José Gabriel Condorcanqui was believed to be descended from the last Inca rulers. In particular, he was thought to be a son of Túpac Amaru I. Túpac Amaru I was the last Inca leader, executed by the Spanish in 1572. Túpac Amaru II would inherit his name later in life when he became the leader of the rebellion. Like the lineage of an African American to the presidency today, his connection to the previous rulers was an important source of legitimacy in the eyes of his followers.

Aside from his lineage, Tupac Amaru led a fairly typical life for someone of his position. He was educated. He spoke Quechua (the Inca language) and Spanish fluently. He was married with kids and used his position to travel regularly throughout the region, dealing with both Spanish authorities and indigenous communities. He saw the brutality of Spanish rule firsthand, and his experiences and lineage set the stage for rebellion.

Peruvian Politics, Economy, and the Hardship of the Indigenous People

There are three main reasons that helped foster the atmosphere for Tupac Amaru’s revolt. All of them were related to the conditions in South America, and more specifically in Peru, during the late 18th century. These reasons are economic depression, political dissatisfaction, and local reasons. All three are intertwined;

Economically, both the local Indians and mestizos were suffering alike. Taxes were increasing due to the Bourbon reform policies that were implemented. These reforms allowed the King of Spain to generate more income from the colony through taxes. The repartimiento had forced colonists to draft Indians into slavery like conditions, where they had to provide workers for the mines and other Spanish projects. Although this practice had been abolished in the mid-century, the economic controls Spain put in place replaced it.

Politically, the Bourbon reform controls created chaos between the Spanish ruling class and local leadership. In efforts to control the colony, King Charles III set laws that discredited creoles and placed power solely in the hands of the crown. Locals were suffering from both increased economic pressures and political oppression.

Locally, Spanish administrators tended to look down upon the indigenous culture of the lands they ruled. Additionally, the repartimiento created strong animosity between the Spanish and the natives. Spanish culture was forced upon the indigenous people, and anyone who looked Spanish was considered upper class. The grandeur of the Inca Empire was still fresh in many of their minds. Tupac Amaru was said to be a descendant of the former Incas who once ruled Cusco with an iron fist. As times grew tougher for many natives and mestizos, they began to see Tupac Amaru as their leader to rid them of Spanish control.

The Uprising of Tupac Amaru

Túpac Amaru’s rebellion is recognized as the largest indigenous rebellion against colonial rule in Spanish South America. Emerging from systemic issues dating back to before the Spanish conquest, such as oppressive taxation and exploitation through forced labor, the rebellion that Tupac Amaru initiated in 1780 was a response to centuries of native mistreatment.

Abuse of indigenous laborers by the Spanish ignited the rebellion. A symbolic start to the revolt came when Tupac Amaru II had Antonio Arriaga, one of the cruelest corregidores (officials who collect tribute and draft laborers) of Tinta, arrested. On November 4, 1780, Arriaga was tried and sentenced to death by Tupac Amaru II, who then proceeded to publicly execute him. It was at this moment that Tupac Amaru made known his plans to revolt against the Spanish and restore the Inca Empire.

The army of Tupac Amaru II consisted mostly of indigenous people. Their battle strategies consisted of both the conventional methods used by the Andean people and adjustments to counter Spanish tactics. One major advantage Tupac Amaru’s forces had was their knowledge of the terrain. Fighting in the thin air of the Andes, Tupac Amaru was able to use the mountainous landscape to his advantage by deploying quick attacks and ambushes before retreating back into hiding.

Additionally, they tended to avoid engaging the Spanish in pitched battles when they were at a disadvantage, instead using guerrilla tactics. Armed largely with weapons like slingshots, bows, and maces, they harassed Spanish troops and convoys. However, over time, they too gained access to firearms and horses. One other advantage the rebels had was their will to fight. They were strongly motivated by their culture and belief system despite technological disadvantages.

On the Spanish side, initial reactions were confused, and the rebellion’s size and scope were underestimated. As the rebellion expanded, Spanish colonial armies and loyalist Native Americans fought with European tactics such as cavalry and siege warfare.

Prior to the large-scale conflict at the Battle of Cuzco, Tupac Amaru II and his rebel troops had seized control of various areas from the Spanish forces. The process began with Tupac Amaru’s execution of Antonio Arriaga, a particularly disliked Spanish corregidor, at Tungasuca. Support and momentum for the rebellion grew as news spread of Tupac Amaru’s resistance and the rebel army’s victories.

Within a short period, the rebellion had reached almost all of the southern Andes. Towns and provinces, such as Tinta and Sangarará, were captured by rebels. Following the victory at the Battle of Sangarará over a professional Spanish army, Tupac Amaru’s troops were greatly encouraged. Recruitment into Tupac Amaru’s rebel army increased rapidly due to his enormous success. Whole villages and cities throughout the Andes that had previously been loyal to the Spanish colonials removed Spanish authorities from power and pledged their loyalty to Tupac Amaru. Indigenous Confidence increased rapidly, and Spanish authorities were greatly alarmed, leading up to the Battle of Cuzco.

The Beginning of the End

The rebellion saw several important battles, including the Siege of Cuzco in 1781. At this battle, Tupac Amaru led approximately 60,000 rebels in an attempt to take the city of Cuzco from Spanish control. Despite being unsuccessful due to Cuzco’s strong defences and superior Spanish artillery, the siege marked a turning point for the rebellion and cut short its momentum. Exact numbers for casualties at Cuzco are impossible to determine, but estimates place the deaths in the thousands.

The 1781 Battle of Combapata was one of the battles of Tupac Amaru’s rebellion and was the beginning of the end.

He had managed to gather large numbers of indigenous people to fight under his banner; estimates range from 50,000 to 60,000 rebels, though Tupac Amaru may very well have been inflating the numbers for intimidation purposes. Regardless of the actual numbers, he still had far more fighters than the Spanish forces combined. The indigenous people were armed with the weapons they were accustomed to using prior to the Rebellion, whereas the Spanish were equipped with guns and cannons. The Spanish army would have to rely heavily on its cavalry and firepower in order to defeat Tupac Amaru II.

The stage was set, and on November 13 at Combapata, the armies met in battle. Tupac Amaru deployed his soldiers into a great battle formation. Hoping to use his overwhelming numbers to his advantage, Tupac Amaru attempted to surround the Spanish forces. However, the Spanish did not let up. Commanded by veteran military officers, the Spanish began to fire cannons into the crowd of indigenous people, thinning their numbers. Amaru’s forces eventually started to fall apart; there was no one with enough experience to lead the rebel troops.

Despite Tupac Amar’s best efforts to keep his men in line, the rebels started to panic and flee from the battle. Casualties were enormous. Tupac Amaru’s forces suffered thousands of fatalities, whereas only around one hundred Spanish soldiers lost their lives. In defeat, Tupac Amaru was forced to withdraw from Combapata. This loss severely damaged the indigenous rebellion. Shortly after the battle, Spanish forces were ready to fight back once more. Tupac Amaru II was eventually captured and killed.

The Battles of Cuzco and Combapata showed the world the power and strength of Tupac Amaru’s Rebellion, but they also revealed some weaknesses as well. Though the indigenous population took Cuzco by surprise, they now knew how serious of a threat Tupac Amaru II truly was to Spanish control. The Spanish Crown flooded the city of Cuzco with reinforcements and money. Veterans were dispatched from Mexico, Chile, and all throughout South America to help defeat Tupac Amaru and his followers. Jose Antonio de Areche, the royal commissioner who was sent to Peru with one mission in mind: defeat Tupac Amaru.

Jose Antonio de Areche would wage war on two fronts. The physical war would start with a reign of terror against not only rebels, but the villages that supported them. Areche’s forces would burn down entire villages that were suspected of supporting the rebellion. This was done to intimidate the natives into stopping their resistance against the Spanish. Areche also waged a mental warfare against the indigenous population. Leaflets were distributed throughout Cuzco and neighboring villages, telling the natives that Tupac Amaru was not their idol, liberator, or hero. Rather, he was a traitor to everything the Catholic Church and Spanish Crown stood for. Areche would utilize the villages’ churches to send this message home.

The rebellion’s victories began to dwindle after Cuzco and Combapata. He may have won the battles, but he was losing the war. Confidence was lost after his supporters failed to take Cuzco by force and were defeated at Combapata. Many natives who had fought for Tupac Amaru believed that he would not win the war and turned against him. It was around this time that Tupac Amaru II decided to retreat to Vilcabamba. However, unknowingly to him, Spanish forces had surrounded the area. An indigenous curaca who was in league with the Spanish gave Tupac Amaru up. Amaru was captured outside the town of Checacupe.

The Fate of Túpac Amaru the “Last Inca”

Túpac Amaru II was executed on May 18, 1781, in Cusco’s main plaza. Túpac Amaru was dismembered by four horses (initially, according to the Spanish viceroyalty’s wishes) as punishment for leading the biggest uprising of the native Andean population against the Spanish, as well as an example to deter future rebellion. When the horses failed to tear him apart, he was instead quartered and beheaded. His remains were then dispatched to different areas as a warning.

The rebellion was suppressed with extreme violence. After his death, thousands who sympathized with Túpac Amaru were killed, tortured, sent to prison or forced labour, or banished. Spanish authorities, eager to ensure that such a rebellion never happened again, took steps to break the power of the indigenous aristocracy and increase Spanish control, going so far as prohibiting indigenous customs, dress, and languages throughout many regions.

In the short term, its suppression achieved the Spanish goals. The fear of imperial forces and subsequent crackdown effectively stopped any future uprisings until independence. The rebellion demonstrated native grievances and the instability of such an exploitative system.

What happened would have lasting consequences. In retrospect, although Túpac Amaru failed in his objectives, his attempted uprising empowered many with a spirit of resistance. Túpac Amaru became a hero to those who would resist colonialism and spawned future leaders of successful independence movements. During the years after Túpac Amaru’s execution, his name would be used to invoke indigenous resistance and autonomy.

His legacy can be seen in modern-day Peru and other Andean states. Many indigenous rights movements have adopted Túpac Amaru’s namesake as their banner. The memory of the uprising and ultimate sacrifice of Tupac Amaru II continues to motivate the people of Peru and spark the fighting spirit of oppressed people throughout Latin America.