The Battle of Grunwald: The Crusade That Broke the Teutonic Knights
Reading Time: 14 minutes On July 15, 1410, the meadows near the villages of Grunwald and Tannenberg in Prussia witnessed a major battle in medieval Europe, with immense consequences for the history of the continent. The Battle of Grunwald was fought between the Teutonic Knights and their enemies, the allied Kingdom of Poland and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania.
The Battle of Grunwald or the First Battle of Tannenberg was the final act of a religious and territorial conflict that had been developing for over a century and changed the course of history for the Teutonic Order.
Prelude to the Battle of Grunwald: Tensions and Alliances
The Teutonic Knights, a crusading military order, began the Prussian Crusade against the pagan Prussian clans in the early 13th century. Empowered by the pope and the Holy Roman Emperor, they overran the Prussians. By the 1280s, the Teutonic Knights had full control of the region. After pacifying the Prussians, the Teutonic Knights shifted their crusading focus to the pagan Grand Duchy of Lithuania, starting a century of raids on Samogitia, which they sought to conquer to link their holdings in Prussia and Livonia.
In 1385, the situation changed completely after the Union of Kreva, in which the Grand Duke of Lithuania, Jogaila, married the Queen of Poland, Jadwiga. Jogaila’s baptism and his coronation as King Władysław II Jagiełło of Poland led to a personal union between Poland and Lithuania. This strengthened the power of both countries and removed the Teutonic Order’s papal sanction of its wars against Lithuania by posing as a defender of Christianity.
Contests over Samogitia and other regions did not abate. The Teutonic Knights, and in particular their Grand Master, Conrad Zöllner von Rothenstein, questioned the validity of Jogaila’s baptism despite Lithuania’s official conversion to Christianity and took the matter to the papal court. Territorial disputes and control over trade routes that pass through major rivers continued to fuel hostilities, making a critical conflict inevitable.
Prelude to Battle: The Road to Grunwald
In May 1409, a fire that started in Samogitia would turn into a major conflagration at the Battle of Grunwald. A revolt against the Teutonic Order in the Lithuanian-occupied region was soon joined by Lithuanian-supported insurgents. The Order’s Knights then threatened to invade in response. In turn, Poland declared its support for Lithuania and the threat of war loomed. Both states committed to supporting the other, and war was formally declared by the Teutonic Order’s Grand Master, Ulrich von Jungingen, against the Kingdom of Poland and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania on August 6, 1409.
The Teutonic Knights did their best to start the war with a pre-emptive strike, surprising Poland and Lithuania by first invading Greater Poland and Kuyavia. The Knights took and sacked several towns and cities, such as Bydgoszcz, while the Poles struggled to mount a proper counter-attack. The early success of the Order in the campaign, however, was short-lived as Polish troops quickly retook Bydgoszcz. At the same time, the Samogitians, who had entered the war, began raiding Memel (Klaipėda), showing that neither side was willing to give in nor able to deal the other a decisive blow.
King Wenceslaus of the Romans mediated and, on October 8, 1409, brokered a truce to run until June 24, 1410. Both sides used this respite not for reconciliation, but for military and political preparations for the coming war. The armies of both sides were being mustered, and both sides were seeking new allies. The Teutonic Order bribed Wenceslaus with large sums of money and obtained from him a declaration that Samogitia lawfully belonged to them. On the other hand, both sides failed in their diplomatic offensives. The Polish-Lithuanian alliance was proving stronger than expected, foiling Sigismund of Hungary’s efforts to cause a split between Poland and Lithuania.
In the lead-up to the war’s resumption, Władysław II Jagiełło and Vytautas made a strategic decision. Both planned to combine their forces and march straight for Marienburg (Malbork), the capital of the Teutonic Order. This was a risky strategy that differed greatly from the expected tactics and aimed to completely surprise the Order. Continuing to conduct raids along the border was crucial, as it was key to keeping the Order’s forces as dispersed and unprepared for the main strike as possible. This Battle of Grunwald intro will look into how the planned surprise played out, making it one of the most pivotal events in Eastern Europe’s history.
The Armies of Grunwald: Composition and Allies
The Battle of Grunwald was one of the largest in the Middle Ages in terms of mobilization and the concentration of forces from across Europe, but no reliable historical source has yet provided the exact numbers. The numbers in the chronicles, written at that time, are not very credible. Since the battle, they have become a source of nationalist sentiment and still are, resulting in many different estimates.
The most commonly cited estimate (especially in Western literature) is that of the Polish historian Stefan Kuczyński: 39,000 troops on the Polish-Lithuanian side and 27,000 on the Teutonic Knights’ side. The exact composition of the troops under the command of the Polish-Lithuanian alliance and the Teutonic Knights is not known, but the forces included cavalry, infantry (pikemen, archers, etc.), and even artillery units. The forces were not homogeneous, and each army had its heavy cavalry units.
Kuczyński’s numbers include all military personnel, regardless of their fighting capabilities or the arm they serve. The Teutonic Knights were outnumbered, but in the quality of their fighting force, training, discipline, and equipment, they had an advantage. Their force was heavily dependent on heavy cavalry. Although only a part of the Teutonic force consisted of these knights, they had advantages in weaponry, such as bombards capable of firing lead and stone projectiles.
These armies were characterized by the diversity of their composition. As a rule, both sides were accompanied by numerous mercenaries and allies from various European states. The Teutonic Knights’ allies came from Westphalia, Frisia, Austria, Swabia, Bavaria, and Hungary (Nicholas II Garai and Stibor of Stiboricz). In turn, the Polish–Lithuanian side included, among others, mercenary units from Moravia and Bohemia (Jan Žižka may have also taken part). Alexander I of Moldavia also participated in the battle, leading the Moldavian expeditionary corps; for his bravery, he was awarded the royal sword Szczerbiec.
As with composition, the command was also related to the complex nature of the forces involved. In turn, the management of the Teutonic Knights’ army was more centralized. The Knights’ army was commanded by the order’s leadership, which emphasized a disciplined, uniform approach. The Polish–Lithuanian alliance, with King Władysław II Jagiełło as the nominal commander and Grand Duke Vytautas taking an active role in field command, demonstrated a federative command structure that integrated various national contingents while pursuing common operational objectives. It was Vytautas who was at the forefront of the battle.
The Strategic March to Grunwald
The Polish-Lithuanian army marched on Grunwald in an organized and well-planned fashion. The first stage of the advance consisted of concentrating the forces at Czerwińsk, 80 kilometers from the Prussian border, where the Vistula was crossed via a pontoon bridge between June 24 and 30. The Polish forces from Greater Poland were concentrated in Poznań, and those from Lesser Poland in Wolbórz. On June 24, King Władysław II Jagiełło, with his Czech mercenaries, reached Wolbórz. Three days later, they arrived at the meeting point with the Lithuanians, who had left Vilnius on June 3.
As the Polish-Lithuanian army prepared to march north to Marienburg (Malbork), the Prussian capital, they preserved secrecy about the movement, which was essential for achieving surprise. However, their concentration was betrayed by Hungarian envoys who came to negotiate a peace treaty.
Learning of the Polish-Lithuanian plan, Grand Master Ulrich von Jungingen of the Teutonic Knights swiftly concentrated 3,000 troops at Schwetz (Świecie) and massed his main army on the Drewenz (Drwęca) River, where he set up a fortified defense line. To force a crossing there, King Władysław II Jagiełło’s scouts found a heavily fortified Teutonic Knights’ crossing at Kauernik (Kurzętnik). On July 11, following a meeting with the war leaders, Władysław II decided to move his army east to the sources of the Drewenz to avoid fighting along the river and to keep the road to Marienburg unblocked.
The Opening Moves of the Battle of Grunwald
At dawn on 15 July 1410, the meadows between Grunwald, Tannenberg (Stębark), and Ludwigsdorf (Łodwigowo) were packed with the concentration of armies. The battlefield stretched about 4 square kilometers. The Polish-Lithuanian and Teutonic Knights’ forces were deployed along a northeast–southwest line, the former situated east of Ludwigsdorf and Tannenberg. The troops were arrayed in three lines, with the Polish heavy cavalry forming the left flank and the Lithuanian light cavalry the right, while the center was a corps of mixed mercenary soldiers. The formations were wedge-shaped and quite deep.
At the head of the Teutonic Knights stood Grand Marshal Frederic von Wallenrode. He placed the elite heavy cavalry of the Order in the first line, in the hope that the Lithuanians would attack at once. The Teutonic Knights, in their heavy armor, remained in their position, forming a virtually motionless line as the hours of the morning passed in a burning sun. During the light rain that began to fall, the dampened gunpowder allowed for the use of only two shots from the cannon.
Additionally, the Grand Master of the Teutonic Order sent two swords as a gift to King Władysław II Jagiełło and Grand Duke Vytautas. The move was meant to be an insult to the allied monarchs, which the Order hoped would make them attack at once. The swords, known as “Grunwald Swords”, later became symbols of Polish defiance and bravery.
The battle commenced with Vytautas leading a vigorous assault on the Teutonic left flank. This intense engagement persisted for over an hour until the Lithuanian light cavalry, possibly overwhelmed, commenced a full retreat.
According to Jan Długosz, a huge disaster of the Lithuanian army started at that moment. The Knights considered the battle already won, but it was a bit early to celebrate, because they broke the order in an attempt to chase the Lithuanians, which costed them dearly later.
In fact, Długosz’s account also contrasts with other contemporary sources and with more recent historians, who emphasize the Lithuanian nature of the rear-guard battle. According to them, the Lithuanian retreat was a ruse de guerre, possibly modeled on a similar tactic employed by the Golden Horde. The Lithuanians pretended to flee in order to entice their enemy into pursuing them. The full encirclement and annihilation of the pursuing enemy forces was reserved for a later stage of the battle.
The Turning Tides at the Battle of Grunwald
Intense combat ensued between the Polish units and the Teutonic Knights as the Lithuanian forces executed their retreat. The Teutonic troops, led by Grand Komtur Kuno von Lichtenstein, concentrated on overpowering the Polish right flank. This part of the battlefield witnessed the heart of the Teutonic offensive, with six of von Walenrode’s banners redirecting from the retreating Lithuanians to join the fierce engagement against the Poles. Amid the chaos, the royal Kraków banner, a significant symbol of Polish resistance, was momentarily captured when its standard-bearer, Marcin of Wrocimowice, was overcome. However, the banner was swiftly recaptured, symbolizing the resilience and unyielding spirit of the Polish troops.
Władysław II Jagiełło then ordered up the second line of reserves, doubling the strength of the Polish counter-attack. Understanding the seriousness of the moment, Grand Master Ulrich von Jungingen took 16 banners, almost one-third of the Teutonic original force, and personally charged the hard-pressed Polish right flank in a last-ditch attempt to turn the tide.
In response, Jagiełło committed his last reserves, the third line of the army. The battle reached its climax at the moment when the final reserves of both sides engaged around the Polish command post.
The climax of the battle was reached when a Teutonic knight (his name is variously given as Lupold or Diepold of Kökeritz) chose to attack the king himself, Władysław II Jagiełło. The blow was only parried by the personal intervention of the king’s secretary, Zbigniew Oleśnicki, who would from this moment gain an influence in the kingdom. This was the critical moment of the Battle of Grunwald, the moment after which the battle descended into its final set-piece maneuvers.
The Decisive Endgame at Grunwald
At this point, the Lithuanian units, which had previously retreated only as part of their ruse, came back to the battle. Unexpectedly, from behind, the Lithuanians fell upon the Teutonic Knights, who had already been at grips with the Polish knights. With that, the balance of the battle was decisively tipped against the Teutonic Knights, who started to be overpowered by the onslaught of the Polish knights and the Lithuanian cavalry.
At that time, Grand Master Ulrich von Jungingen was at the forefront of his forces, trying to charge through the Lithuanian lines, but there he was killed. A knight named Dobiesław of Oleśnica is said to have dealt the Teutonic Grand Master the mortal blow, according to one chronicle, while another one claims that the blow was delivered by Mszczuj of Skrzynno.
Zawisza the Black, a legendary Polish knight and national hero, played a prominent role in the Battle of Grunwald, contributing to the pivotal victory over the Teutonic Knights. Zawisza was, at the time, a well-known knight with his own coat of arms, serving in the heavy cavalry under the royal banner of King Władysław II Jagiełło. The dashing, fearless knight has since been remembered for his gallantry at the Battle of Grunwald, where he inspired his fellow knights and paid for his courage with his life. As an outstanding example of chivalry and heroism, Zawisza’s participation in the battle made him known throughout Europe and an enduring legend in Polish history.
The leaderless, surrounded Teutonic force began to flee toward their camp. However, at a crucial moment of the battle, the camp followers of the Teutonic army unexpectedly turned on the knights. The Teutonic camp, recently reinforced with wagons, was used to create fortifications with bastions at each corner to provide last-ditch defense. All this was put to a swift end as the easily constructed fortifications were rapidly overpowered. After this, the camp was brutally sacked with complete disregard for the death toll. It is believed that more people were killed in the camp than on the battlefield.
Following their crushing defeat, the Teutonic Order attempted to attribute it to treachery. Nicholas von Renys, the commander of the Culm banner and a Polish sympathizer, was accused of intentionally lowering his banner to feign defeat, triggering a panic that led to the rout of the Teutonic forces. Von Renys was executed without trial.
The concept of internal betrayal was received in later German historiography. This reflected the widespread “stab-in-the-back” myth in Germany after World War I as the Order struggled to comprehend the defeat at the Battle of Grunwald. The battle raged for nearly ten hours.
Aftermath of the Battle of Grunwald: A Transformative Victory
The Battle of Grunwald was a significant blow to the Teutonic Order, both to its immediate military capabilities and to its longer-term political influence. Contemporary casualty figures vary widely, with sources suggesting anywhere from 8,000 to 18,000 dead, which reflects the high intensity and total nature of the medieval warfare of the time. The Order’s own records reveal that a substantial portion of its army never returned to collect their wages at Marienburg, indicating heavy losses. The Order also suffered significant casualties among its leadership, with many high-ranking members killed or captured, including Grand Master Ulrich von Jungingen. This loss of experienced leadership and elite fighters would have immediate and long-term effects on the Order’s military and political power.
In the immediate aftermath, the victorious Polish-Lithuanian forces secured several high-ranking captives, including dukes and other members of the nobility, who were later ransomed for substantial sums, further draining the Order’s resources. However, despite the victory, the Allied forces’ delayed march to Marienburg allowed the Order time to prepare their capital for a siege, which they ultimately repelled. This failure to act decisively after the battle represented a lost strategic opportunity to deliver a crippling blow to the Order.
The longer-term consequences of the Battle of Grunwald unfolded over the following years, as the region’s political landscape was reshaped by the conflict. While the Peace of Thorn in 1411 resolved some of the territorial disputes among Poland, Lithuania, and the Teutonic Order, it did not yield significant territorial gains for the former two, illustrating the complex nature of medieval diplomacy. However, the financial reparations imposed on the Order in the treaty would contribute to its long-term economic and political decline. Struggling to meet indemnity payments, the increased tax burden, and mercenary costs, the Order faced internal dissent and external pressure, leading to significant territorial losses and the rise of the Prussian Confederation.
The decline of the Teutonic Order marked the beginning of the end of its status as a significant political and military power in the Baltic region. The Battle of Grunwald’s legacy is thus not only as a pivotal battle but also as a turning point that significantly weakened one of medieval Europe’s most formidable military orders. It paved the way for the rise of statehood in Prussia and the consolidation of power by its neighboring monarchies.
