The Welsh Rebellions: How Princes Defied English Kings

The wonders of the Welsh rebellion lie not only in the bravery of its leaders but in the enduring spirit of a nation that refused to be subdued. For centuries, Welsh princes led fierce uprisings against English domination, driven by the dream of preserving their land, culture, and sovereignty.

From Llywelyn the Great’s calculated alliances to Owain Glyndŵr’s fiery campaigns, each rebellion painted a vivid picture of resistance and resilience. These conflicts weren’t just battles over borders—they were struggles for identity and freedom. While the English Crown ultimately tightened its grip, the defiance of Wales’ leaders left an indelible mark on British history, a testament to the enduring power of Welsh pride and determination.

Llywelyn ap Iorwerth (Llywelyn the Great)

King of Gwynedd
Reign	1195–1240
Predecessor	Dafydd ab Owain Gwynedd
Successor	Dafydd ap Llywelyn
Born	c. 1173 Dolwyddelan
Died	11 April 1240 Aberconwy Abbey
Burial	Aberconwy Abbey
Spouse	Joan, Lady of Wales

Llywelyn ap Iorwerth, known as Llywelyn the Great, was a central figure in the Welsh rebellion against English domination, skillfully combining strategic warfare and diplomacy to assert Welsh independence. Born around 1173, he unified Gwynedd and extended his influence across much of Wales. His marriage to Joan, the illegitimate daughter of King John of England, played a significant role in Llywelyn’s political strategy, offering temporary peace with England while allowing him to consolidate power at home. However, tensions between the Welsh prince and King John eventually escalated into open conflict, leading to decisive battles that defined Llywelyn’s reign.

One of Llywelyn’s early victories came in 1256, when he launched a campaign to reclaim Perfeddwlad (the Four Cantrefs) from English control. The success of this offensive reinforced Llywelyn’s dominance in northern Wales and allowed him to consolidate power over most of the country. The Welsh rebellion gained further momentum after this victory, as many Welsh lords saw Llywelyn as the leader capable of standing up to English interference. By 1258, he declared himself Prince of Wales, a title formally recognized by the Treaty of Montgomery in 1267, marking a temporary high point in the Welsh fight for sovereignty.

However, tensions resurfaced when Llywelyn refused to submit to Edward I’s demands for homage and tribute. This defiance led to Edward’s campaign in 1277, resulting in a devastating loss for the Welsh at Deganwy. Llywelyn was forced to sign the Treaty of Aberconwy, which stripped him of most of his territory and power. The defeat at Deganwy was a major turning point, as it weakened the Welsh rebellion and limited Llywelyn’s authority, leaving only Gwynedd west of the River Conwy under his control. Yet, Llywelyn did not give up his ambition to restore Welsh independence.

Llywelyn’s greatest military success came during the 1215 Welsh uprising, a rebellion that coincided with the English baronial revolt against King John. Seizing the opportunity, Llywelyn led Welsh forces to capture the vital Carmarthen Castle and other strategic fortresses in South Wales. These victories weakened English influence and gave Llywelyn the upper hand in negotiating the 1218 Treaty of Worcester, which officially recognized him as the dominant leader of Wales. This treaty was a landmark moment for the Welsh rebellion, as it granted Llywelyn legitimacy and formal acknowledgment of his authority from the English Crown.

His defensive success at Deganwy Castle illustrated his ability to control strategically important regions. The castle near Conwy Bay was essential to defending northern Wales from English incursions. Llywelyn’s successful defense of this and other fortresses demonstrated his understanding of defensive warfare and guerrilla tactics, which capitalized on Wales’ rugged terrain. His military successes preserved Welsh autonomy and inspired future leaders to continue the fight.

Llywelyn’s marriage to Joan proved significant beyond diplomacy—it provided temporary stability during times of conflict. However, when their relationship is tested by Joan’s affair with William de Braose, a powerful Marcher lord, Llywelyn manages the crisis with pragmatism. He executed de Braose in 1230 but ultimately forgave Joan, recognizing that preserving political alliances was crucial for the ongoing Welsh rebellion. This ability to prioritize national interests over personal grievances was key to Llywelyn’s enduring success.

By the time of his death in 1240, Llywelyn had left a legacy of both military and political accomplishments. His victories at Carmarthen and Aberconwy and his recovery from defeats like the 1211 campaign demonstrated his resilience and strategic mind. His influence on future uprisings, including those of Llywelyn ap Gruffudd and Owain Glyndŵr, ensured that the spirit of the Welsh rebellion lived on, making him a lasting symbol of Wales’ fight for freedom.

Dafydd ap Llywelyn

King of Gwynedd
Reign	1240–1246
Predecessor	Llywelyn ab Iorwerth
Successor	Llywelyn ap Gruffudd
Born	March 1212 Castell Hen Blas, Coleshill, Bagillt, Flintshire, Wales
Died	25 February 1246 (aged 33) Abergwyngregyn
Burial	Aberconwy Abbey
Spouse	Isabella de Braose

Dafydd ap Llywelyn, the son of Llywelyn the Great, played a crucial role in the Welsh rebellion as he struggled to maintain the independence his father had fought for. Born around 1212, Dafydd inherited the title of Prince of Gwynedd after his father died in 1240. His reign was marked by conflict with King Henry III of England, who sought to curtail Welsh autonomy. Unlike his father, who had balanced diplomacy with warfare, Dafydd’s rule leaned heavily on military resistance as he defended Wales from English encroachment.

One of Dafydd’s most significant military actions was his surprise attack on Mold Castle in 1241, an important English outpost in North Wales. This victory was symbolic of the Welsh rebellion as it temporarily weakened English control in the region and demonstrated Dafydd’s readiness to use force to protect his territory. However, the triumph was short-lived. Henry III responded with a large military campaign, forcing Dafydd into submission under the Treaty of Gwerneigron in 1241. This treaty saw him surrender key territories and hostages, marking an early setback in his efforts to resist English domination.

In 1244, Dafydd reignited the Welsh rebellion by launching another offensive, with broader support from disillusioned Welsh lords who resented English interference. One of his significant actions was the siege of Dyserth Castle, a strategic English stronghold in northeastern Wales. Although the siege failed, it marked a period of sustained guerrilla warfare and regional uprisings destabilizing English control. The campaign demonstrated Dafydd’s determination to reclaim lost ground and resist Henry III’s authority, even as setbacks mounted.

The Battle of Montgomery in 1245 was a turning point for Dafydd. His forces engaged English troops in a prolonged and bloody conflict near the border. While initially successfully defending key positions, the Welsh eventually suffered losses as the English reinforced their army. Montgomery’s failure was significant because it weakened Dafydd’s ability to maintain territorial gains and secure future alliances. The defeat marked the decline of his military campaign and signaled the need for a different approach to sustain the Welsh rebellion.

Dafydd’s sudden death in 1246, under mysterious circumstances, left his ambitions unfulfilled and Gwynedd vulnerable to further English intervention. His passing created a leadership vacuum that sparked internal divisions among Welsh princes, weakening the broader rebellion. Despite his limited success, Dafydd’s efforts inspired future leaders like Llywelyn ap Gruffudd, who viewed him as a predecessor in the ongoing struggle for Welsh independence. His reign highlighted the challenges of maintaining unity and sustaining military resistance against a powerful adversary.

Ultimately, Dafydd ap Llywelyn’s legacy within the Welsh rebellion lies in his resilience and refusal to accept subjugation. His battles—both victories and defeats—revealed the vulnerabilities of the Welsh resistance but also underscored its enduring spirit. Although he could not replicate his father’s long-term success, Dafydd’s defiance and military campaigns ensured that the fight for Welsh autonomy would continue, laying the foundation for future uprisings against English rule.

Llywelyn ap Gruffudd (Llywelyn the Last)

King of Gwynedd
Reign	1246–1282
Predecessor	Dafydd ap Llywelyn
Successor	Dafydd ap Gruffudd
Prince of Wales
Reign	1267 – 1282
Predecessor	Vacant
Successor	Dafydd ap Gruffudd
Born	c. 1223 Gwynedd
Died	11 December 1282 Cilmeri
Spouse	Eleanor de Montfort

Llywelyn ap Gruffudd, known as Llywelyn the Last, was the final sovereign Prince of Wales and a defining figure in the Welsh rebellion against English domination. Born around 1223, Llywelyn inherited the dream of independence and expanded his father’s and grandfather’s legacy by uniting much of Wales under his leadership. His reign was marked by both triumphs and devastating defeats, making him a symbol of Wales’ resistance. His conflicts with King Edward I of England would ultimately lead to the collapse of native Welsh rule.

One of Llywelyn’s early victories came in 1256, when he launched a campaign to reclaim Perfeddwlad (the Four Cantrefs) from English control. The success of this offensive reinforced Llywelyn’s dominance in northern Wales and allowed him to consolidate power over most of the country. The Welsh rebellion gained further momentum after this victory, as many Welsh lords saw Llywelyn as the leader capable of standing up to English interference. By 1258, he declared himself Prince of Wales, a title formally recognized by the Treaty of Montgomery in 1267, marking a temporary high point in the Welsh fight for sovereignty.

However, tensions resurfaced when Llywelyn refused to submit to Edward I’s demands for homage and tribute. This defiance led to Edward’s campaign in 1277, resulting in a devastating loss for the Welsh at Deganwy. Llywelyn was forced to sign the Treaty of Aberconwy, which stripped him of most of his territory and power. The defeat at Deganwy was a major turning point, as it weakened the Welsh rebellion and limited Llywelyn’s authority, leaving only Gwynedd west of the River Conwy under his control. Yet, Llywelyn did not give up his ambition to restore Welsh independence.

The final and most tragic chapter of Llywelyn’s rebellion came in 1282, when he reignited the conflict following growing unrest among his people. The campaign saw some early successes, but the turning point was the Battle of Orewin Bridge in December 1282, where Llywelyn was ambushed and killed. His death marked the collapse of the Welsh rebellion, as without his leadership, the resistance quickly crumbled. Orewin Bridge was more than just a battlefield defeat—it symbolized the end of native Welsh rule and the beginning of centuries of English dominance over Wales.

Llywelyn’s death also led to the capture and execution of his brother, Dafydd ap Gruffudd, in 1283, which further sealed Wales’ fate. The fall of the Welsh rebellion left an enduring impact on the national identity, with Llywelyn ap Gruffudd remembered as a martyr for Welsh freedom. His legacy fueled future rebellions, most notably that of Owain Glyndŵr over a century later, as the Welsh continued to fight for the independence that Llywelyn had so fiercely pursued.

Ultimately, Llywelyn ap Gruffudd’s life was a testament to the resilience of the Welsh rebellion. His victories showed the potential for a united Wales, while his defeats demonstrated the challenges of resisting the might of the English Crown. Though his death marked the end of native Welsh rule, his legacy of defiance remains a powerful symbol of Welsh pride and the enduring struggle for self-determination.

Dafydd ap Gruffudd

Prince of Gwynedd
Reign	1246–1282
Predecessor	Dafydd ap Llywelyn
Successor	Abolished
Prince of Wales
Reign	1282–1283
Predecessor	Llywelyn ap Gruffudd
Successor	English title: Edward of Carnarvon (1301-1307) Welsh title: Owain Glyndwr (1400/15)
Born	11 July 1238 Gwynedd, Wales
Died	3 October 1283 (aged 45) Shrewsbury, England
Spouse	Elizabeth Ferrers

Dafydd ap Gruffudd, the brother of Llywelyn ap Gruffudd, played a pivotal role in the final chapter of the Welsh rebellion against English domination. Born around 1238, Dafydd was a controversial figure who shifted alliances between the Welsh and English crowns before ultimately taking up the mantle of resistance. Dafydd‘s alliance shifting even had him abandon his brother, join English Forces, and join the attack on Llywelyn.

His leadership marked the last major effort to preserve Welsh independence following the death of Llywelyn in 1282. Despite his determination, Dafydd’s campaign faced overwhelming odds and ended with catastrophic defeat, cementing his place in history as the last Prince of Wales to openly defy the English Crown.

Dafydd’s initial involvement in the rebellion began as a co-leader alongside Llywelyn, though tensions between the brothers occasionally flared. After Llywelyn’s death at the Battle of Orewin Bridge in 1282, Dafydd took charge of the Welsh rebellion, rallying remaining forces and launching defensive campaigns. One of his key victories was the defense of Dolbadarn Castle, which provided a temporary stronghold against advancing English forces. This victory was significant because it delayed Edward I’s forces, allowing Dafydd time to reorganize and maintain resistance in northern Wales. However, the success was short-lived as the English army regrouped and intensified its campaign.

A crucial loss for Dafydd came during the siege of Castell y Bere in 1283, a strategically located fortress in Gwynedd. Despite its strong defenses, the castle fell to English forces after a prolonged siege, marking a major setback for the rebellion. The fall of Castell y Bere was important because it symbolized the collapse of key Welsh strongholds, leaving Dafydd with limited resources and few places to retreat. This loss weakened morale among his supporters and highlighted the overwhelming military superiority of Edward I’s forces.

Dafydd’s final defeat occurred when he was captured near Bera Mountain in June 1283 after being betrayed by local allies. His capture signified the end of the Welsh rebellion, as he was the last remaining leader capable of continuing the fight. Following his capture, Dafydd was taken to Shrewsbury, where he was subjected to a brutal execution—hanged, drawn, and quartered. His death marked a turning point in Welsh history, symbolizing not just the end of armed resistance but the full incorporation of Wales into the English legal and political system.

Despite his failure to achieve lasting independence, Dafydd’s role in the Welsh rebellion left an enduring legacy. His tenacity and refusal to surrender inspired future leaders, particularly Owain Glyndŵr, who viewed Dafydd as a symbol of defiance. The battles Dafydd fought—both victories like Dolbadarn and defeats like Castell y Bere—showcased the fierce determination of the Welsh people. Although he could not prevent Wales from being absorbed by the English Crown, Dafydd’s legacy remains embedded in the national memory as a testament to the long-standing desire for Welsh self-rule.

Ultimately, Dafydd ap Gruffudd’s involvement in the Welsh rebellion highlights the fragility of native Welsh rule and the difficulty of resisting a powerful adversary like Edward I. His leadership during the final stages of the rebellion served as both a tragic conclusion to centuries of resistance and an enduring reminder of the sacrifices made in pursuit of independence. His downfall marked the end of an era, but his story continues to resonate with those who remember Wales’ centuries-long struggle for autonomy.

Owain Lawgoch (Owain ap Thomas ap Rhodri)

Born	Owain ap Thomas ap Rhodri c.1330 Tatsfield, Surrey, England
Died	July 1378 The siege of Mortagne, France
Cause of death	Assassination
Resting place	Church of Saint Leger

Owain Lawgoch, also known as Owain ap Thomas ap Rhodri, was a significant but often overlooked leader in the long-running Welsh rebellion against English control. A descendant of the royal house of Gwynedd, Owain was born around 1330 and spent much of his life in exile in France. His rebellion gained momentum during the Hundred Years’ War, as he aligned himself with France and used the conflict as an opportunity to challenge English dominance in Wales. His military campaigns, though largely conducted outside of Wales, were an extension of the broader Welsh struggle for independence.

Owain’s most notable military success came during his 1372 campaign when he led a French-backed expedition to reclaim Wales. He commanded a fleet of ships and successfully raided English coastal towns, causing significant disruption to English trade and coastal defenses. This victory demonstrated the potential for external alliances to support the Welsh rebellion, showing that the fight for independence was not confined to Wales itself. The raids boosted morale among Welsh nationalists and reaffirmed that the dream of an independent Wales was still alive.

However, Owain’s ambitions were thwarted at Guernsey in 1372, where English defenders repelled his forces. Although the battle ended in defeat, it underscored the strategic risks of launching maritime campaigns against the heavily fortified English coastline. Guernsey’s loss was significant because it halted Owain’s momentum and limited his ability to launch further expeditions directly into Wales. Despite this setback, Owain’s reputation as a capable and determined leader grew, making him a persistent threat to English control.

Owain’s final attempt to lead a Welsh rebellion came in 1378, when he planned another invasion with French support. However, his campaign was cut short when he was assassinated on the orders of King Edward III’s government. The English government, deeply concerned by Owain’s actions, dispatched a Scottish agent named John Lamb to carry out his assassination. At the time, Owain was leading the siege of Mortagne-sur-Gironde in Poitou. Lamb successfully earned Owain’s trust and served as his squire, a position that allowed him to fatally stab Owain in July 1378.

His death was a devastating blow to the Welsh cause, as it eliminated a leader with the military experience and royal lineage needed to unite Welsh resistance. The assassination was a calculated move by the English, demonstrating their recognition of Owain’s potential to reignite widespread rebellion.

Despite his ultimate failure to reclaim Wales, Owain Lawgoch’s legacy as a key figure in the Welsh rebellion endured. His willingness to form strategic alliances with foreign powers set him apart from earlier leaders and inspired future generations of Welsh nationalists. Owain’s efforts highlighted the importance of external support in fighting for independence, a lesson that would later influence leaders like Owain Glyndŵr. His story remains a testament to the long-standing determination of the Welsh people to resist English rule, even when exiled from their homeland.

Owain Lawgoch’s life represents a crucial chapter in the history of the Welsh rebellion, bridging the gap between the defeat of native Welsh princes like Llywelyn ap Gruffudd and the later uprising of Glyndŵr. His military campaigns, both victories and defeats, demonstrated that the desire for independence did not die with the fall of Gwynedd. Though his rebellion ended in tragedy, his memory is a symbol of the enduring Welsh spirit and their persistent quest for freedom.

Owain Glyndŵr (Owen Glendower)

Baron of Glyndyfrdwy, and Lord of Cynllaith Owain
Reign	c. 1370-1400
Predecessor	Lord Gruffydd Fychan II
Successor	Abolished
Prince of Wales
Reign	1400–1415
Predecessor	Welsh: Dafydd ap Gruffydd (1282-1283) English: Henry of Monmouth (1399–1400)
Successor	Welsh: Vacant English: Edward of Westminster (1453–1471)
Born	Owain ap Gruffydd c. 1354 Sycharth, Wales
Died	20 September 1415 (aged 60–61)
Burial	21 September 1415 (unknown location)
Spouse	Margaret Hanmer

Owain Glyndŵr, or Owen Glendower, led the most famous and widespread Welsh rebellion against English rule, becoming a symbol of national pride and resistance. Born around 1359, Glyndŵr was a nobleman with ties to the ancient Welsh royal bloodlines. His rebellion, which began in 1400, aimed to establish an independent Welsh state with its own parliament and church. Unlike earlier, localized uprisings, Glyndŵr’s campaign gained international attention and involved alliances with France, creating the most significant challenge to English authority in Wales since the 13th century.

One of Glyndŵr’s early victories came at the Battle of Hyddgen in 1401, where his outnumbered forces defeated an English army. This victory was crucial to the Welsh rebellion, as it rallied support from disillusioned Welsh nobles and commoners alike. The morale boost from Hyddgen allowed Glyndŵr to expand his campaign across central and northern Wales. The victory demonstrated the effectiveness of guerrilla tactics, with Glyndŵr’s forces using the terrain to their advantage. It also encouraged many regions to declare their loyalty to him, making the rebellion a national movement rather than a localized uprising.

Another key moment in the rebellion was the Battle of Pilleth in 1402, where Glyndŵr’s forces defeated a larger English army under Sir Edmund Mortimer. The victory was important not only because it strengthened Glyndŵr’s position but also because it led to Mortimer’s capture. Mortimer later allied himself with Glyndŵr through marriage, solidifying Welsh resistance and giving the rebellion additional legitimacy. Pilleth’s success further destabilized the English administration in Wales and opened the door for Glyndŵr’s ambitious plan to unite the Welsh territories under a single government.

However, the rebellion suffered a significant setback at the Battle of Pwll Melyn in 1405, where English forces inflicted a devastating defeat on Glyndŵr’s army, killing many of his key supporters, including his son Gruffudd. The battle’s outcome weakened the momentum of the Welsh rebellion and forced Glyndŵr to retreat to the mountains. Pwll Melyn was a turning point because it marked the beginning of the rebellion’s decline. Without the resources to continue large-scale battles, Glyndŵr’s forces were gradually reduced to small guerrilla units, limiting their ability to pose a serious threat to the English Crown.

Despite these losses, Glyndŵr continued to resist, and his final years are shrouded in mystery. He disappeared around 1415, with no record of his capture or death, creating a legendary status that endures in Welsh folklore. The symbolic power of the rebellion, even in defeat, left a lasting impact on Wales. Glyndŵr’s vision of an independent Wales inspired future generations of Welsh nationalists and became a cornerstone of Welsh cultural identity.

Due to its scale and lasting influence, Owain Glyndŵr’s rebellion remains the most significant in Welsh history. His victories at Hyddgen and Pilleth demonstrated the potential for a united Wales, while his losses highlighted the challenges of sustaining a prolonged conflict against a powerful adversary like England. Although the rebellion ultimately failed, Glyndŵr’s efforts solidified his legacy as a hero of the Welsh rebellion, and his dream of independence continues to resonate with modern Wales.

The Legacy of the Welsh Rebellions

The story of the Welsh rebellions is one of resilience, ambition, and sacrifice. From Llywelyn the Great’s strategic victories at Aberconwy to Owain Glyndŵr’s triumph at Pilleth, Welsh leaders repeatedly demonstrated their ability to unify their people and challenge English power. Even in moments of defeat, such as the fall of Castell y Bere under Dafydd ap Gruffudd or the devastating losses at Pwll Melyn during Glyndŵr’s campaign, these battles underscored the determination of a nation unwilling to accept subjugation. Each victory ignited hope, while each defeat shaped future leaders, ensuring that the fight for Welsh autonomy would continue across generations.

Although the Welsh rebellions ultimately failed to achieve sustained independence, its impact on Wales’ identity and history remains profound. The struggles and sacrifices of its leaders inspired national pride and became central to Welsh cultural memory. Figures like Llywelyn ap Gruffudd, Dafydd ap Gruffudd, and Owain Glyndŵr lived on as symbols of defiance, their legacies passed down through literature, folklore, and national movements. These defeats did not mark the end of the dream of independence but rather its transformation into a lasting ideal that still resonates with modern Wales, where the spirit of resistance is deeply embedded in the nation’s identity.